Team:NCTU Formosa/source/project/test3

Spread:This moths has a natural range across Europe, Asia, and North Africa.

Characteristics:The larva is green, khaki, grey-brown or brown with dark spots^(1)(2)(3). The topside is darker than the bottom side and a yellow or light brown stripe goes round the middle portion by the spots.

Damage:The caterpillar of this species is seen as a pest for commercial agriculture. Often referred to as the "imported cabbageworm" they are a serious pest to cabbage and other mustard family crops. It can also be a pest of cultivated brassicas and sweet peas, but it feeds on a wide range of other plants.

Control: Organic controls⁽⁴⁾ for cabbage worms include handpicking, excluding them with row cover barriers, or treating with a Bt pesticide. Cabbage worms are found throughout North America, and more than one species may be found in the same garden.

Spread:The pink bollworm has spread to cotton-growing regions throughout the world.

Characteristics: The larva is green, khaki, grey-brown or brown with dark spots⁽⁵⁾. The topside is darker than the bottom side and a yellow or light brown stripe goes round the middle portion by the spots⁽³²⁾.

Damage: The cotton bollworm is a highly polyphagous species.[6] The most important crop hosts are tomato, cotton, pigeon pea, chickpea, sorghum and cowpea. Other hosts include groundnut, okra, peas, field beans, soybeans, lucerne, Phaseolus spp., other Leguminosae, tobacco, potatoes, maize, flax, Dianthus, Rosa, Pelargonium, Chrysanthemum, Lavandula angustifolia, a number of fruit trees, forest trees and a range of vegetable crops⁽⁶⁾.

Control: Cultural controls, with the exception of the use of Bt cotton and the use of mating disruption and sprays of the Entrust formulation of spinosad are acceptable to use on organically grown cotton⁽⁷⁾.

Spread:Widely distributed in Asia and Oceania.

Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, India, Iran, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam. Oceania: Australia, Guam, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Micronesia, Papua New Guinea,

Samoa, other Pacific islands. United States: Hawaii⁽⁸⁾.

Characteristics: Adult moths measure between 15-20 mm (0.59-0.79 inches) in length and have a wingspan of 30-38 mm (1.18-1.5 inches). Forewings are gray to reddish-brown, with a complex pattern of creamy streaks and paler lines along the veins. Hind wings are grayish-white with grayish-brown margins. Males have a blue-grey band from the upper corner (apex) to the inner margin of each forewing. Larvae have bright yellow stripes along the back and the sides. Larval color varies from pale green to dark green^(9)(31).

Damage: Oriental Leafworm Moth Spodoptera litura is a Noctuid moth which is considered as an agricultural pest. It is also known as the Cluster caterpillar, Cotton leafworm, Tobacco cutworm, and Tropical armyworm. It has a very wide host range of over 120 plant species, including: lettuce, cabbage, beetroot, peanuts, geranium, cotton, banana, fuchsias, acacia, African oil palm, amaranth, alfalfa, strawberry, sorghum, sugarcane, tomatoes, asparagus, apple, eggplant, beet, beans, broccoli, elephants ear, horsetail she oak, corn, flax, lantana, papaya, orange, mango, leek, among many others.

Control: The use of Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) may effectively control this pest. Other forms of biological, horticultural, and cultural control that have been studied include: planting near derris and garlic plants, breeding resistant plants from wild plants for example groundnuts from wild groundnuts, breeding resistant plants using bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis genes, using a Baculovirus, using the nematode Steinernema carpocapsae, and using the fly Exorista japonica⁽¹⁰⁾.

Spread:The red imported fire ant, a eusocial species, are far more aggressive than most ant species. Animals, including humans, often encounter them by inadvertently stepping on one of their mounds, which causes the ants to swarm up the legs, attacking en masse. The ants respond to pheromones released by the first ant that attacks, thereafter stinging in concert⁽¹²⁾.

Characteristics: Fire ants are red and black in coloration and, like all insects, they are protected by a hard exoskeleton and have six legs. Worker ants have round heads with mandibles, an armored thorax midsection and an abdomen, made up of the pedicle and the gaster. The head is typically copper brown in color. In addition to their mandibles, fire ant workers also possess an abdominal stinger^(11)(29).

Damage: They are considered to be a pest, not only because of the physical pain they can inflict, but also because their mound-building activity can damage plant roots, lead to loss of crops⁽¹²⁾.

Control: Hot water Pouring hot water on the mounds is effective and environmentally friendly, but may require 3 or 4 applications to kill the colony. Water should be at least scalding hot, but does not need to be boiling. This works best when you use 3 to 4 gallons of water in each application. WARNING: Hot water kills grass and shrubbery and may cause severe burns if spilled. Liquid nitrogen: it could be the most effective and most environmental friendly method to eradicate the species^(30)(13).

Spread:The yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, is a mosquito that can spread the dengue fever, chikungunya, and yellow fever viruses, and other diseases. The mosquito can be recognized by white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the thorax. The mosquito originated in Africa, but is now found in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world⁽¹⁴⁾.

Characteristics: The mosquito can be recognized by white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the thorax.

Damage: The yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, is a mosquito that can spread the dengue fever, chikungunya, and yellow fever viruses, and other diseases⁽¹⁵⁾.

Control: Empty water from containers such as flower pots, birdbaths, pet water dishes, cans, gutters, tires and buckets regularly to disrupt the mosquito breeding cycle. Consider using an insect repellent, be sure to follow the label directions for applying the repellent. For help selecting a mosquito repellent, try our Insect Repellent Locator⁽¹⁶⁾.

Spread: This Caterpillar can be found, as various species, through be serious foliage feeders on some crops such as peanuts.hout North America.

Characteristics: Cutworms common in Georgia fields are black (Agrotis ipsilon (Ashmed)), granulate (Agrotis subterranea (Fabricius)) and variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia(Hubner)). These are moths in the family Noctuidae. Full-grown cutworm larvae are 1.5 to 2 inches long. Coloration will vary among species, but all tend to be stout-bodied caterpillars with four sets of prolegs. They have the tendency to curl into a ball when disturbed⁽¹⁷⁾.

Damage: Almost any plant can be attacked in the seedling stage. Cotton and certain vegetables sometimes have stand reductions⁽¹⁷⁾.

Control: Bacillus thuringiensis, a widely available caterpillar-killing bacterium,is a very effective control for climbing cutworms as well as for the surface feeders⁽¹⁸⁾.

Spread: It has a range which covers Europe, Africa, and North America⁽¹⁹⁾.

Characteristics:Gypsy moth caterpillars change appearance as they grow. Young caterpillars are black or brown and about ¼ inch (0.6 cm) in length. As they grow, bumps develop along their backs along with coarse, black hairs. Each of the 11 sections of a developed caterpillar will have two coloured spots, the first five pairs, blue, and the last six, red. Mature caterpillars can be as long as 2 ½ inches (6.35 cm)⁽²⁰⁾.

Damage: It is classified as a pest, and its larvae consume the leaves of over 500 species of trees, shrubs and plants. The gypsy moth is one of the most destructive pests of hardwood trees in the eastern United States.he gypsy moth was considered a nuisance just ten years after their release. It included an account of all the trees being defoliated, caterpillars covering houses and sidewalks and that the caterpillars would rain down upon residents. The first outbreak occurred in 1889. An eradication program was begun in 1890.

Control: Tanglefoot Pest Barrier or Sticky Tree Bands can be placed around tree trunks to help curtail the caterpillars movement into and out of the tree canopy. Apply Bacillus thuringiensis, var. kurstaki or Monterey Garden Insect Spray (Spinosad) to the leaves of trees to kill gypsy moth caterpillars⁽²¹⁾.

Spread: The obliquebanded leafroller (OBLR) is native to and widely distributed throughout temperate North America⁽²²⁾.

Characteristics: hatched larvae have a yellowish green body and a black head and thoracic shield. Mature larvae are 20 to 25 mm in length and the head and thoracic shield may be either black or various shades of brown⁽²³⁾.

Damage: Leafrollers, the larvae of certain tortricid moths, often feed and pupate within the protection of rolled-up leaves. Several species can cause problems on fruit and ornamental trees in California. The fruittree leafroller, Archips argyrospila, is the most common leafroller pest in landscapes throughout the state. It occurs on many ornamental trees—including ash, birch, California buckeye, box elder, elm, locust, maple, poplar, rose, and willow—and is particularly damaging to deciduous and live oaks. It also attacks numerous fruit and nut trees including almond, apple, apricot, caneberries, cherry, citrus, pear, plum, prune, quince, and walnut⁽²⁴⁾.

Control: Several parasites attack OBLR larvae but do not adequately control the pest. Apply sprays during June to kill the first summer brood adults and newly hatching larvae⁽²⁴⁾.

Spread: the place where farmers want to feed.

Characteristics : It is entirely dependent on humans for its reproduction and does not occur naturally in the wild⁽²⁶⁾.

Damage: None

Control: Not necessary